1. Introduction
The terms “Hebrew” and “Israelite” are used in the Old Testament seemingly interchangeably. However, what is their actual meaning, and why do different people use different terms in different settings? What is the significance?
2. Lexical and Linguistic Background
The term Israelite, as commonly known, refers to being one of the children of Israel. Israel is the name given to Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, after wrestling with God at Penuel (Genesis 32:28). Israel comes from the two words Hb “sarah,” which means “to set in order,” “to command,” or “to fight,” according to Gesenius’ Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon. The Hb “el” means god or God, according to Gesenius.
According to Gesenius’ Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon, the term Hebrew, Hb “`evri,” is a term meaning “from beyond.” It usually refers to from beyond the eastern region, or beyond the Euphrates. It is important to remember the ancestor to the Israelites, Abram, journeyed from the land of Ur of the Chaldees, a land far east near Babylon, near the Euphrates. In this context, Hb “`evri” refers to a foreigner. This is a comment on the original departure of Abram from the far east to Canaan, then the Israelites to Egypt, and finally back to Canaan.
3. The word in the Bible
Simply put, the term Hb “yisrael” refers to God’s people in the normative sense. Before the divide of the Israelite kingdom after the death of Solomon, Israel referred to the 13 tribes of Jacob. After the divide, Israel referred to the northern tribes of Israel, as opposed to the southern tribes of Judah. After the return from exile, Israel refers to all tribes once more. The terms Israel and Judah are the normative terms to refer to God’s people.
The term Hb “`evri,” or Hebrew, is used sparingly throughout the Bible, and only in early history. The term is only used three times past 1 Samuel 29. Two times are quotations of Exodus in Jeremiah, and the final time is Jonah 1:9. In 1 Samuel, The term “Hebrew” is exclusively used in immediate contrast to the people of Philistia. For example, 1 Samuel 4:9 NKJV, “Be strong and conduct yourselves like men, you Philistines, that you do not become servants of the Hebrews…” This is with only a single exception, 1 Samuel 13:7, where Philistines are mentioned two verses earlier. Outside of 1 Samuel, Hb “`evri” is used almost exclusively in Exodus, either referring to a “Hebrew servant” or the “God of the Hebrews.” The term “`evri” is almost exclusively used in three contexts: (1) Hebrew slaves in Israel, (2) Hebrew slaves in Egypt, (3) Hebrew slaves to the Philistines. Therefore, the term “`evri,” as used in the Bible, as a close connotation to slave.
4. Transitional Developments in later literature
The usage of “`evri” in Jonah 1:9 is peculiar, as it is the only use of the term after 1 Samuel that is not a quotation of Pentateuchal laws (i.e., with Jeremiah’s use). The LXX and Targum Jonathan translations of this verse do not use the term “Hebrew,” but translate the term as servant/slave in LXX and Judahite in TJ. The TJ verse can be simply explained as responding to the use of “medinah,” or district, in the previous verse. However, LXX’s translation of Hb “`evri” into Gr “doulos” may strengthen the point already labored.
5. Synthesis And Conclusion
In conclusion, while the term “`evri,” or “Hebrew,” literally refers to someone from the east, it may connotatively denote an eastern slave. This term is used almost exclusively in context with slavery, either regarding slave laws, slavery to Egyptians, or slavery to Philistines. The LXX translation of Hb “`evri” into Gr “doulos” may not be far-fetched, then, if Hebrew communicates slave, matching the Greek “doulos,” meaning servant or slave. The use of “`evri” in Jonah is seemingly a stand-alone case of a very early term making its way into a later work.
